4GL - initials for "Fourth Generation Language" (See listing).

Access Key - the data element(s) which are used to identify and search through a physical file.

Access Method - the technique used to access data on a physical file device. Types of access methods include sequential, index sequential, hierarchical structure, network structure, relational structure, etc.

Accessibility - a timing consideration used in "Information Driven Design" for specifying when and where data is to be retrieved to produce information for delivery to end user destinations. Accessibility answers the question, "Can I get to the data when I need to?" How data is accessed is a function of output. (See Availability, and Output).

Administrative Procedure - a detailed set of human processable operating instructions required to accomplish a specific process within a sub-system. Administrative procedures detail manual steps along with explanations and examples. They are procedures to be used for such things as performing routine or clerical assignments, making decisions, report distribution, input preparation, or for using "office automation" related equipment. (See Sub-System and Operational Step).

ANSI - initials for American National Standard Institute; standards institution.

ASCII - American National Standard Code for Information Interchange - standard control characters and graphic characters (as used in a simple text file).

Availability - a timing consideration used in "Information Driven Design" for specifying how and when data is collected from various sources within an enterprise. Availability answers the question, "Is the data there when I need it?" How data is made available is a function of input. (See Accessibility, and Input).

Available Time - time when an employee is available for work. Available time is divided into two categories: Direct and Indirect Time (see listings).

BASIC - a procedural programming language. (See Procedural Languages).

Basic Grouping - refers to the indicative data elements used to uniquely identify a view (logical record). It also represents a dependency between data elements in a particular context (it is how they are "grouped" into separate views). For example, in a Customer Object, it is used to segregate address data, from credit data, from customer contact data, etc. Perhaps it is easier to think of the "basic grouping" as the key to a logical record (not a physical record). Because the intent is to uniquely identify data, the "basic grouping" consists only of "Indicative" data (not "Descriptive" or "Quantitative"). There may be up to two parts in a single basic grouping:

PRIMARY BASIC GROUPING - Since views are used to describe objects, they must all be defined with the one data element used to uniquely identify the overall object; this will be a primary/indicative/object-oriented data element. The Primary Basic Grouping will be the basis to sort views into objects (e.g., all Product related Records will be put in the Product File, all Customer related Records in the Customer File, etc.).

SECONDARY KEYS are used to either distinguish Characteristic Views or Relationship Views.

Batch - a method of processing that involves the processing of several transactions and does not necessarily require instantaneous response. Batch processing is especially suited to entering or retrieving large volumes of data from the enterprise data base. (See Interactive, Processing Method, and Transaction).

Benefits - something that contributes to an improvement in condition or promotes profitability for a given enterprise, either tangibly or intangibly. When writing benefits, begin with a transitive verb, such as: Improve, Maximize, Minimize, etc. Be sure to substantiate your claim; do not simply say "Improved cash flow." Instead, say, "Improved cash flow by reducing inventory overhead."

Bill of Materials - an itemized account of all of the parts of a product and their relationships in order to assemble a complete product. In IRM terms, the bill of materials for information includes systems, data and business resources.

Bill of Materials Processing (BOMP) - a mechanized way of tracking all of the resources in a product.

BLOG - slang expression referring to a web page devoted to topics relating to a specific subject (e.g., News, Essays, etc.). For an example, click HERE.

BOMP - initials for "Bill Of Materials Processing" (see listing)

Break Even Point - a point in time where cost savings match accumulated development expenses. Typically calculated as:
BEP = Investment divided by Average Annual Savings.

Business Process - (see Sub-System).

C - a procedural programming language. (See Procedural Languages).

C++ - variation of the C programming language oriented to Object Oriented Programming (see listing).

CAD - initials for "Computer Aided Design" (see listing).

CAM - initials for "Computer Aided Manufacturing" (see listing).

CASE - initials for "Computer Aided Software Engineering." Computer tools that provide support for software engineering and manufacturing activities. Their perspective is on software only.

Chief Information Officer (CIO) - an executive level officer who represents the chief information broker/architect/strategist of a company. Ideally, the CIO reports to the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and maintains a lateral working relationship with the Chief Operating Officer (COO) and Chief Financial Officer (CFO).

CIO - initials for Chief Information Officer (see listing).

Client - slang expression referring to a computer that operates on a communications network transmitting and receiving data to/from a file server. (See Server, and Thin-Client).

Client/Server Computing - computing technique for processing data between a "client" computer and a file "server." (See Client, and Server).

COBOL - acronym for COmmon Business Oriented Language; a procedural programming language (see listing).

Command File - a PC file (BAT or CMD) containing basic computer operating commands.

Command Line or Prompt (aka DOS prompt) - the ability to type a command directly to the computer (as opposed to through a GUI interface).

Compiler - a program translator that converts source code into executable programs. (See Source Code).

Computer Aided Design (CAD) - computer software/hardware used to assist in the design of a product.

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) - computer software/hardware used to assist in the manufacturing of a product, such as industrial robots.

Computer Literate - slang expression referring to a person's proficiency with a computer. The expression is actually erroneous; "literate" refers to literature, which doesn't relate to a person's skill or talent; a more apt expression would be "computer proficient."

Computer Procedure - a detailed set of machine processable instructions required to accomplish a specific process within a sub-system. A computer procedure consists of one or more computer programs linked together and executed in a prescribed sequence. (see Sub-System and Program).

Control, Project - one of the five basic activities of Project Management; it is concerned with monitoring project activities in order to realize the goals of a project, this includes time estimates, date schedules, and project costs.

Cost/Benefit Analysis - an analysis of the costs or expenses incurred by a project in comparison to the benefits derived from implementing the project.

CPU - Central Processing Unit (see Microprocessor).

Critical Path - the longest path in a project methodology which is critical to the timely completion of a project or part of a project. A project always has a critical path until it is completed or cancelled. The path may vary according to accomplishments.

Critical Path Method (CPM) - a project planning and scheduling technique which was developed in the mid-1950's by Morgan R. Walker of the E.I. DuPont de Nemours Company Engineering Department of Wilmington, Delaware and James E. Kelley of Sperry Univac. It is an approach for defining the structure of a project. It establishes a network of project phases with nodes to indicate start and stop points. Critical project activities are determined and are used as a point of reference for scheduling. The technique was originally developed for linear programming and was called "network analysis." (See PERT).

Data Base - all of the data necessary to meet the information requirements of an enterprise, regardless of where used or how stored. A DBMS is not a prerequisite for data base. A common misconception is that an organization's data base is only that data stored on direct access devices by the computer. Actually, the data base may reside in many physical forms (e.g., tape, microfiche, disk, paper, cards, etc.). By this definition, all enterprises have a data base. The where and how of storage is dictated by the time requirements for information. Because information needs vary over time and as a result of changing conditions, the data base should be readily expandable. This base should be both hardware, software and application independent. An integrated data base environment is one in which the various parts of the data base are available for shared use and coordination within the environment.

Data Base Engineering - The discipline of developing the corporate data base to accommodate the processing requirements of all systems. The objectives of Data Base Engineering are:

1. To produce a RELIABLE corporate data base that satisfies all of the corporate systems and performs according to specifications.
2. To produce a corporate data base that is easy to MAINTAIN and MODIFY.
3. To physically implement the corporate data base in the most PRACTICAL, EFFICIENT, and COST EFFECTIVE manner possible.

Data Base Management System (DBMS) - computer software used to store and retrieve data. Ideally, the intent of the DBMS is to share and re-use data between computerized systems.

Data Element - the digital representation of a fact or an event. It is the raw material required to produce information. There are three types of data elements: descriptive, indicative, and quantitative (see respective listings). A descriptive data element is used to describe names, routings, addresses, text, etc. An indicative data element is used to uniquely identify objects, in part or in full, and usually consists of identification numbers and codes. Quantitative data elements are numeric values, such as quantities and percentages. There are only three things that can happen to a data element: it can be created, updated, or referenced. Data elements also come in two forms, primary and generated (see listings). Primary data elements are entered into an information system by a user. Generated data elements are developed internally within the system and most often made up of quantitative data elements. Generated data elements are created based on some form of logic, such as a calculation or formula. (Also see Group Data).

DBA - initials for Data Base Administrator; a person responsible for administrating a DBMS.

DBCS - initials for Double Byte Character Set, the ability to handle oriental character sets (e.g., Japanese and Chinese alphabets).

DBMS - initials for Data Base Management System (see listing).

DDL - Data Definition Language - a language enabling the structure and instances of a data base to be defined in a human-, and machine-readable form.

Deliverable - a reviewable result produced from the execution of a work step in a methodology. In systems development, a deliverable can take the form of either a document (usually a formal or informal report or working paper), a computer file or an executable program. Its intent is to substantiate that the work has been completed according to the methodology (see Methodology).

Descriptive Data - descriptive data consists of alphanumeric characters that are not strong enough to identify an object, but convey important business facts about an object, such as names, addresses, text, codes, etc.

Detail Estimate - an estimate of the effort required to complete the activities of an individual phase and is prepared prior to the start of the phase by the individual or individuals assigned to the phase. The detail estimate is an expression of someone's personal commitment and is expressed in Direct Time and used to calculate project schedules.

Direct Time - that amount of time expended on productive work, such as following the assigned phases/activities/steps of a methodology. Project estimates are expressed in Direct time. Under the "PRIDE" concept of "Mini-Project Manager," the individual is responsible for managing Direct Time. Available Time include both Direct Time and Indirect Time.

DLL - initials for Dynamic Link Library, chunks of re-usable program code that is called for and executed as required by other programs (see Subroutine).

Domain - the lowest level in the classification hierarchy (Data Taxonomy); a collection of data elements, one or more, with common characteristics. For example, "text" related data elements would be in one domain, "weights" in another, "percentages" in another, "monetary values" in another, etc. The domain also defines the standard physical characteristics and values the data may assume. (Also see Taxonomy)

EDI - initials for Electronic Data Interchange; computer software designed according to industry standards to enable the exchange of data between different systems.

EIS - initials for Enterprise Information Strategy (see listing).

Effectiveness - producing a desired result. Whereas efficiency is concerned with how well a task is performed, effectiveness deals with the necessity of the task itself. Effectiveness answers the question, "Are we doing the right things?" (See Efficiency and Productivity).

Effectiveness Rate - the relationship of Direct to Indirect Time (see listings); it is expressed as the percent of time spent on direct work.
E.R. = (Direct Time + Indirect Time) / Direct Time
If someone has a low effectiveness rate, this may highlight to the manager that an employee is experiencing too many interferences, such as meetings or breaks. The manager can then exercise authority and minimize or eliminate the indirect activities if it is deemed unproductive or incorrect. In this way, the manager is controlling the work environment. On the other hand, a low effectiveness rate is not always considered undesirable. For example, a manager may send employees to a training class to sharpen their skills and become more productive. The employee's effectiveness rate for this period would be very low. As such, "effectiveness rate" should never be considered a measurement of a worker's productivity.

Efficiency - producing a desired result without waste. Efficiency is concerned with how well a task is performed. Effectiveness deals with the necessity of the task itself. Efficiency answers the question, "Are we doing things right?" (See Effectiveness and Productivity).

Engineering - the planning, design and construction of an object; i.e., buildings, products, machinery, etc.

Enterprise - a defined business entity with a specific mission, whether profitable or non-profitable in intent. Enterprises take many forms, such as the conventional commercial venture, whether private or public, a government agency, a fraternal organization, even a simple household can be viewed as an enterprise. It exhibits the following characteristics:

1. It has a mission or purpose.
2. An enterprise depends on other enterprises in order to survive.
3. An enterprise is a self-governing body.
4. An enterprise is a self-contained unit.

Enterprise Decomposition - the technique for defining the logical structure of the enterprise (building a functional hierarchy). Performed in Phase 2 of "PRIDE"-EEM

Engineering Engineering - The discipline of developing logical and physical models of the business. This includes documenting and analyzing business functions, administrative relationships, and performing an organizational analysis. Based on this, Enterprise Engineering is also used to identify information requirements and establish the priorities for business objectives, along with their supporting projects. The objectives of Enterprise Engineering are:

1. To produce ACCURATE and RELIABLE models of the enterprise.
2. To produce corporate models that are easy to MAINTAIN and MODIFY.
3. To recommend the most PRACTICAL, EFFICIENT and COST EFFECTIVE means to physically organize a business.
4. To develop and maintain corporate priorities pertaining to business objectives and their supporting projects.

Enterprise Information Strategy (EIS) - a plan to develop or modify information systems synchronized with business plans. The EIS is prepared in Phase 4 of "PRIDE"-EEM.

Ergonomics - an expression referring to consideration given to the human element in systems design. During sub-system (business process) design consideration is given to the physical implementation of the system. Systems analysis must consider the human senses and intelligence level, as well as man/machine interfaces in determining an appropriate system implementation.

Estimate to Do - the amount of time a worker he/she believes has remaining on a given task. This is not an automated calculation but rather a human assessment of remaining work and an important part for project reporting and control. Estimate to Do is expressed in Direct Time.

Estimating, Project - one of the five basic activities of Project Management; estimating is the process used to determine the amount of effort and cost required to implement a project, in part or in full. there are two types of estimates in "PRIDE" Project Management: Detail (for a single phase) and Order-of-Magnitude (for the whole project) (see separate listings). All estimates are expressed in Direct Time.

Feasibility Study - normally the first phase in a project used for specifying and analyzing a business problem/opportunity and proposing to management a course of action. It is usually one of the most important phases of a project due to its concentration on the proper identification and specification of business problems and requirements.

File - a logical and/or physical grouping of one or more records. A logical file is used to represent an object used in the operation of the enterprise. A physical file is used to describe a particular way to store data. Physical files can be implemented two ways; manually or computer-assisted. Computer files can be formatted (organized) many different ways; e.g., AVI, BMP, DOC, GIF, JPG, TXT, WAV, etc. A manual file is a storage location for inputs and outputs (human-readable forms and documents). A computer file is a storage location for machine-readable records.

Flowchart - graphical representations of system and software designs expressing processing movement ("flow"). Flowcharts are used as a planning tool in a manner similar to the way architects use perspective drawings or blueprints, and the way process engineers use flow diagrams to describe processes.

Form - 1. A document used to collect data (see Input), and; 2. A type of web page used to collect data (includes such things as field entries, check boxes, pushbuttons, text fields, radio buttons, etc.). After a person has completed the form, the data can be sent electronically to another person via e-mail.

Fortran - a procedural programming language (see listing).

Fourth Generation Language - a specification driven, non-procedural programming language used to interpret and manipulate data in a DBMS or some other computer file. (See Program Generator, and Report Writer).

Frequency - an attribute of timing that defines how often information is required. This timing consideration will be used to determine the time cycle of sub-systems to produce the required information. Frequency specifies the specific time cycle (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, upon request, etc.) in which the sub-system is to be processed and the number of times within the cycle this processing is anticipated to take place, (e.g., three times daily, once a week, twice a month, etc.). (See Information, Offset, and Response Time).

Function - a logical grouping of one or more responsibilities for carrying out a specific portion of the mission of the enterprise. Functions define WHAT work must be performed and WHY. When organized into a hierarchy, functions represent the logical structure of the enterprise.

Gantt Chart - a documentation technique developed by Henry L. Gantt which allows management to visualize work to be performed and scheduled in relation to a calendar. It is a useful tool for determining project schedules, as well as for monitoring actual performance. In this way, it can be used to identify the critical path of a project. Other expressions of a Gantt Chart include "Bar Chart," "Planning Chart," "Milestone Chart" or "Histogram." (See Critical Path).

GB (or GIG) - Gigabyte; one billion bytes (1,073,741,824). Refers to the number of bytes a computer can process or store, such as on disk or in memory. (See KB, and MB).

Generated Data - refers to data that relies on other data elements in order to produce the necessary result. This type of data can involve elaborate calculations and algorithms (e.g., Data-1 + Data-2 = Data-3). "Net Pay," "Balance Amount" and "Percent Complete" are some examples of calculated data. (See Primary Data, and Group Data).

Group Data - a form of generated data that represents a concatenation of indicative data elements in a prescribed format. For example, "Telephone Number" is a group data element consisting of "Area Code," "Exchange Number," and "Account Number" (for example: 727/786-4567). There are many other examples of "group" data: such as credit card numbers, product identification codes, public utility account numbers, etc.

Host - slang expression to refer either to the main computer or a file server (see Server).

Illustrative Examples - sample inputs and outputs produced prior to software design so that a user can visualize its layout and content. For this purpose, illustrative output/input uses sample data values (not X, Z, 9, etc.). Prototyping tools are useful for preparing such examples.

Impact Analysis - an analysis of the impact of a proposed change to a part to the sub-assemblies, assemblies, products and storage areas that are affected by the part. An impact analysis results in a bill of materials of all of the resources affected by the proposed change. This listing can then be used for project planning, estimating and scheduling purposes. In this way, it is used for "what if" analysis purposes. In IRM terms, an impact analysis results in a bill of materials of information resources affected by the change to one resource. (See Bill Of Materials Processing).

Implosion - expression refers to the bottom-up assemblage of parts to build a product. "Explosion" represents an opposite process. A product, such as an information system, is designed by explosion (top-down) and implemented by implosion (bottom-up).

Indicative Data - data used to uniquely identify an object in part or in full. "Uniqueness" is an inherent property of indicative data so that it can be used to clearly differentiate occurrences of an object. This is why control numbers and codes are typically used as indicative data, as opposed to names. Names can be too vague. For example, there may be more than one employee named "John Smith." Without some form of qualifier, it is virtually impossible to distinguish one "John Smith" from another. Consequently, an "Employee Number" is assigned to uniquely identify each employee.

Indirect Time - time that does not contribute to productive work, such as non-project related meetings, training, breaks, etc. Indirect Time is used to help calculate project schedules. Under the "PRIDE" concept of "Mini-Project Manager," the manager is responsible for managing Indirect Time. Available Time include both Direct Time and Indirect Time.

Information - the understanding or insight gained from the processing and/or analysis of data. Information is created as a result of the collection, processing and analysis of data in a prescribed manner. Information supports specific business related actions and decisions. The accuracy of information depends on the validity and completeness of the data and the processing logic used. There are three types of information: policy, control and operational. Policy information is used to establish policies and corporate direction. Control information is used by middle management to implement policy decisions and control corporate operations. Operational information is used by employees in the daily operations of the business, such as processing orders, payroll, and shipping products.

Information Requirement - a specific need for information in order to perform actions and decisions related to the business of the enterprise.

Information Resource Management (IRM) - the function of controlling and coordinating all of the resources required to produce information, such as data, systems, and business resources. The concept of IRM is analogous to Materials Resource Planning (MRP) as used in manufacturing.

Information System - an organized and methodical approach for the collection, storage and retrieval of data necessary to produce information in a timely basis to satisfy business objectives. It is a product that can be engineered and manufactured like any other product. Because of this, a system has a hierarchical structure consisting of one or more sub-systems; consisting of one or more administrative procedures and one or no computer procedures; each administrative procedure consists of operational steps, and each computer procedure consists of one or more programs. Systems vary in size depending on the scope of information required and are often arbitrarily established. Systems communicate to each other through shared data. An information system may or may not be automated; a manual system may be more cost-effective. An information system is often erroneously referred to as a "data processing system," "software system," or a "computer system." (See System, and Sub-System).

Input - human-intelligible medium that is used to collect data to store in a data base.

Interactive - a method of processing which refers to the interaction and instantaneous responsiveness that a person requires in order to solve a problem. An individual works "interactively" through a problem by submitting transactions and obtaining results that possibly require more transactions until the problem is answered. This can be applicable to both manual and automated information systems. (See Batch, Processing Method, and Transaction).

Internet - a set of communications protocols that permits companies and organizations to exchange data. Examples of protocols include: the World Wide Web, E-Mail, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Newsgroups, Gopher, Telnet, and others.

I/O - Input/Output

IRM - initials for Information Resource Management (see listing).

JAD - initials for Joint Application Development; technique used in programming where the developer works closely with the end-user to design a program. Using application development aids such as a prototyping tool and program generators, the programmer prepares and reviews the layout of a screen or a report for the user before preparing the final executable program.

LAN - Local Area Network - allowing multiple computers within a limited geographical area to communicate and share computer resources (see WAN).

Mainframe - refers to a large computer with far more capacity and processing speed than a PC. Because of this, mainframes are commonly used as file servers (see Server).

Maintenance - this activity is concerned with correcting errors or defects in a product. It is intended to correct the problem and make the product operate according to specifications. In most organizations, this represents approximately 5% to 10% of the systems development work effort. (See Modification/Improvement).

Materials Resource Planning (MRP) - a manufacturing related activity concerned with managing the materials required to produce products. This includes collecting, inventorying, and distributing parts in the most cost-effective and efficient means possible. The concept of Information Resource Management is analogous to MRP (see IRM).

Materials Management - to receive, inventory and distribute parts to the assembly lines for building products. It is also concerned with the standardization and reuse of parts for various products.

MB (or MEG) - Megabyte; one million bytes (1,048,576). Refers to the number of bytes a computer can process or store, such as on disk or in memory. (See GB, and KB).

MBA - initials for M. Bryce & Associates

Methodology - one or more phases of work to be executed in a prescribed manner. The methodology denotes a project's sequence of execution or network. All projects have a structure; some are based on key events to be completed and others are based on the structure of a product to be built. All projects have a beginning for planning, a middle for execution and an end for review. The beginning phase of most projects is performed through some form of feasibility study. The ending phase is usually an evaluation phase. Each phase, activity and operational step within a methodology must produce a reviewable deliverable to substantiate adherence to the methodology. (See Deliverable).

Microprocessor - the main processing unit or chip in a PC, sometimes referred to as chip or CPU.

"Mini-Project Manager" - "PRIDE" Project Management concept. Under this approach, people are treated like professionals and are expected to act as such in return. It emphasizes less supervision and more personal management by the individual worker. Employees must learn to supervise themselves. Although, management still provides leadership and direction over assignments, employees participate in the estimating, scheduling and control process.

Modification/Improvement (Mod/Imp) - the activity required to change or enhance an existing product. For most organizations, this will represent 85% to 90% of their systems development work effort.

Modeling - to develop a preliminary design of a product based on product specifications. The model is used to evaluate the product's viability and also serves as the pattern to complete the design.

Module - compilable program source code consisting of one or more subroutines written in the same programming language. It is not executable by itself. (See Subroutine).

Object Code - executable program (see Source Code).

Object Oriented Programming - a design technique for writing programs. Object Oriented Programming (sometimes referred to as "OOPS") stresses the reuse of software by classification. (See Structured Programming).

Objective - a goal for the enterprise to achieve whether strategic, tactical, or mandatory in nature. An objective can be used to call for new development, modify or improve an existing condition (mod/imp), or to maintain or correct something. One or more objectives can be grouped into a project. An objective may relate to one or more information requirements.

Offset - a timing consideration used to denote when sub-systems, procedures or program are to begin their cycles (i.e., hour, day, week, etc.). When a sub-system is performed "upon request" there is no offset since is not schedulable. (See Frequency, Information and Response Time).

Operating System (OS) - the basic machine software used to operate a computer. Some examples: Windows, DOS, Linux, OS/2 MVS, UNIX, Exec, etc.

Operational Step (Task) - the smallest unit of work when executing an administrative procedure. One or more operational steps make up an administrative procedure (see listing).

Order-of-Magnitude (O-O-M) Estimate - an estimate of the effort remaining to complete a project and is typically prepared by the project manager or project team. It is expressed in terms of remaining phases, not activities. It is also expressed in Direct Time and used to calculate project schedules.

Organizational Analysis - an analysis of how well the physical enterprise model matches the logical model. During this activity, functions not being fulfilled are identified and overlaps in management are highlighted (both horizontally and vertically). This provides management with the ability to make more effective use of organization resources. This activity is performed in Phase 3 of "PRIDE"-EEM.

PC - initials for Personal Computer.

PERT - a technique for planning, estimating and scheduling projects which was developed in 1958 by the U.S. Navy Special Projects Office, Bureau of Ordnance, in cooperation with Booz, Allen and Hamilton, a management consulting firm. PERT was originally used to develop the Navy's Polaris Weapon System. It utilizes the definition of a methodology for the completion of a project. A PERT network depicts the precedent relationships that exists between various phases, activities or operations, so that critical activities can be identified and the appropriate scheduling and resource allocations can be made. PERT was originally derived from the Critical Path Method (CPM). Like CPM, PERT also expresses nodes in the network and tries to express critical activities in the development of a project. The difference between PERT and CPM is basically that CPM uses one estimate and schedule, while CPM uses three: minimum, maximum and probable. (See Critical Path Method).

Phase - a prescribed set of one or more activities normally performed serially to accomplish specific project work. One or more phases make up a project. The sequence by which they are executed indicates the project structure (methodology) and usually has "deliverables" associated with them.

Planning, Project - one of the five basic activities of Project Management; project planning is concerned with establishing the scope of a project, along with the work breakdown structure and precedent relationships, and allocating resources to performing the work.

Playscript - a technique developed by Les Matthies used for writing administrative procedures. It is derived from a script for a play and describes the "actors" and their "actions" (operational steps). Computer programming procedural languages use derivatives of Playscript (e.g., COBOL, FORTRAN). (See Administrative Procedure and Operational Step).

Positions - a prescribed set of duties and responsibilities; another name is "job." Positions are implemented by human/machine resources.

Precedent Relationships, Project - the relationship of work steps within a project denoting dependencies in execution (sequential execution and parallel path ("branching")).

PRIDE - MBA's product line. Acronym for PRofitable Information by DEsign - through phased planning & control. "PRIDE" is the registered trademark of M. Bryce & Associates

Primary Data - primary data refers to data in its virgin state; as introduced to the system from an external source (such as a person or department). "Source" defines who is responsible for entering the data to a system, and who has ultimate authority for the definition of the data element. (See Generated Data).

Procedural Languages - programming languages which make use of procedural statements, such as COBOL, Fortran, C, Basic. Procedural languages are considered "third generation" (as opposed to "Fourth Generation Languages" - see listing) and were ultimately derived from the Playscript procedure technique (see listing).

Procedure - the detailed set of steps necessary to accomplish specific work. The steps consist of instructions either in human or machine readable terms that direct the performance of particular processing functions. (See Administrative Procedure and Computer Procedure).

Process Diagram - a diagram used in engineering to show the flow of a process or work flow. A flowchart is another form of process diagram. (See Flowchart).

Processing Method - an expression used to describe the approach taken for the implementation of information systems; including such methods as interactive, on-line, real-time, transaction, batch, data and time driven. The method selected depends upon the derived logical processes and is based upon the analysis of timing and economics required to meet the information needs. The basic processing constructs include: sequence (consecutive progression), iteration (repetition until a condition is met), and choice (selection of path). The use of transactions is also an inherent part of all processing. (See Batch, Interactive, and Transaction).

Product Structure - a hierarchy that defines various levels of detail in a product's structure, from general to specific. This hierarchy defines the assemblies, sub-assemblies, and parts of the product. This becomes the basis for the design and development of the product.

Productivity - producing the correct results in the most efficient means possible. It is measured by effectiveness ("Are we doing the right things?") and efficiency ("Are we doing things right?"). Productivity = Effectiveness X Efficiency.

Program - a set of computer-executable instructions that perform a step within a computer procedure. Programs can be linked together to form a computer procedure. A program may be subdivided into modules if so desired.

Program Generator - an application development aid for producing program source code, usually for a procedural language such as COBOL. It should not be mistaken as a systems generator, but rather as a software generator. (See Fourth Generation Language, and Report Writer).

Programmer/Programming (see Software Engineering)

Project - a scope of work consisting of one or more phases. A project is an application of the material and human resources to a specific objective through the execution of a prescribed sequence of events. All projects have a structure which usually consists of a beginning (for planning), a middle (for execution), and an end (for review).

Project Administration - a support function used to validate project data and adminster a Project Management system.

Project Management - the function of applying resources to a defined goal and obtaining this goal within time and cost objectives. Project management is people management oriented, not clerical or administratively oriented. A Project Manager is sometimes called a "project leader," "team leader," "foreman," or "contractor."

Project Management system - an information system used to support project management activities. The system does not make decisions, people do, based on information received from the system.

Project Network - refers to a project's work breakdown structure; this specifically includes the phases, activities and tasks of the project, along with the precedent relationships between them (denoting the sequence of project execution). (See Methodology and Precedent Relationships).

Project Plan - a defined plan for executing a project. A Project Plan should specify: 1. The methodology for the project, including the phases, activities, and steps required to execute the project, along with their sequencing, and; 2. The human and machine resources required to perform the work, including both internal and external resources.

Project Scope - the statement of a particular business problem and/or opportunity (one or more objectives) to be addressed by a project and the organizational entities that will be affected, both directly and indirectly.

Quality Assurance (QA) - a function concerned with building quality into a product during design, not inspecting for quality after the fact. Quality assurance is a shared responsibility and not a single job description in a company. Quality is judged by how well the product conforms to specifications.

RAD - initials for Rapid Application Development; design technique for programming involving the use of special application development tools (CASE) to expedite the development of a program (not an Information System).

RAM - Random Access Memory - referring to the computer's memory.

Record - a collection of one or more data elements. (See Data Element, and File).

Referential Integrity - Rules for inserting, changing, and deleting data from a DBMS. This is an important consideration for selecting a DBMS in order to safeguard the integrity of the data.

Report Writer - an application development aid used to produce special reports based on an analysis of computer based data. (See Information Center, Fourth Generation Language, and Program Generator).

Reporting, Project - one of the five basic activities of Project Management; this includes the reporting of time, effort, and money towards project work.

Resource - a re-usable source of supply to produce something. Examples include human, financial, material, and information resources. To maximize the efficient and effective use of resources, they must be classified in order to share them and eliminate unwanted redundancy, and controlled in order to receive, store and distribute them properly.

Response Time - an attribute of timing that defines the maximum processing time allowable from the start of the execution (offset) to when it must be performed. Response time can be expressed in seconds, minutes, hours, days, etc. (See Frequency, Information, and Offset).

Return On Investment (ROI) - the ratio of projected cost savings versus amount invested. Typically calculated as:
ROI% = (Average Annual Savings divided by Investment) X 100

ROM - Read Only Memory - cannot write to the device.

Scanner - an input device used to scan in documents and convert them into a computer readable format.

Scheduling, Project - one of the five basic activities of Project Management; scheduling is a distinctly separate activity from estimating even though it depends upon accurate estimates. It is the process of converting direct hour estimates into date schedules. Scheduling includes the assignment of resources to tasks in the correct sequence to meet the objectives of the project.

Server - refers to a type of computer used to store and manage computer resources, and share them with outside computer ("clients") via communication links. For example, a "web server" is a computer dedicated to managing and allowing access to web pages; a "mail server" manages e-mail, etc.

Skills - specific knowledge or talents as developed by education and/or experience. Proficiency denotes level of skill.

Software (computer) - machine processable instructions for operating a specific computer. There are two aspects to computer software: "system software" which is concerned with the basic operational needs required to operate computer hardware (i.e., operating systems, communication utilities, performance monitors, editors, compilers, etc.), and; "application software" which is concerned with having the computer perform specialized tasks to assist users in their work effort.

Software Engineering - a subset of information systems engineering which is concerned with the analysis of computer processing specifications, designing programs that will be the most appropriate solution to satisfying these specifications, defining the machine operating instructions for executing the programs, and successfully producing executable object code for a computer. The objectives of Software Engineering are:

1. To produce reliable programs that will perform according to specifications.
2. To produce programs that are easy to maintain and modify.
3. To physically implement programs in the most practical, efficient, and cost effective manner possible.

Source Code - the ASCII text used to actually compile a program. Source code is written according to the rules of a specific language (e.g., COBOL, Java, C, Pascal, Basic, etc.). (See Object Code).

Source, Data - the point of origin for a specific data element. A data element source can come from either a user area or, if generated, from some calculation or formula.

SQL - initials for Structured Query Language; a query language used to manipulate data in a DBMS.

Structured Programming - an expression used to categorize organized program design techniques. Structured programming adheres to a set of prescribed rules and standards used to produce a program. Its purpose is to provide programs that are easy to maintain and modify. It is simply one alternative to software engineering. Other alternatives include a 4GL, report writers, or program generators. (See Object Oriented Programming).

Sub-Assembly - a portion of an assembly used to bring together parts to build a product. In IRM terms, an assembly is represented by a sub-system and a sub-assembly is represented by procedures. (See Assembly, and Information System).

Sub-System - a business process or "work flow" within an information system which consists of inputs, outputs, and files used to produce specific information within a particular time frame. When initiated, sub-systems are executed to their logical conclusion and consist of one or more administrative procedures and not more than one computer procedure. The procedures can be executed serially or concurrently depending on flow or process in logic. Sub-systems relate to each other through the data base.

Subroutine - the smallest unit of program source code which can be invoked at program execution time by other subroutines (within the same module or other modules) to perform tasks. Its attributes include: it may or may not be re-usable or re-entrant to itself (it should have only one entry point); it is not compilable by itself; it is language dependant and can call or be called (by other subroutines). Depending on program language used, a subroutine may be referred to as a "function" or a "section."

System - an orderly arrangement, grouping or combination of one or more elements which form a whole. Its purpose is to accomplish specific goals or objectives. It operates routinely in a specific and predictable manner. (See Information System).

System Concept Diagram - the purpose of the System Concept Diagram is to communicate to users the concepts and approaches that will be used to meet their information needs. This diagram is based on the rough designs of the system, which in turn are based on the information requirements. Although there are no formal standards for this diagram, it should show who/what/when and how the system will perform. (See Rough Design).

System Life Cycles - Expression commonly used in the field to refer to a methodology or a project. Unfortunately, it is incorrect. Systems do not have life cycles. They will go on forever if kept viable with change. Projects, which are scopes of work, have life cycles. They have a beginning for planning, a middle for execution, and an end for review.

System Software - concentrates on the basic operational needs of the computer hardware and is represented by the operating system. The expression itself, "System" Software, is perhaps a misnomer in that it has nothing to do with Information Systems. Instead, it is only concerned with operating the computer.

Systems Engineering - The discipline of specifying user information requirements, designing a logical system that can produce the required information, determining the most appropriate way to physically process data, and to successfully implement the physical system. The objectives of the Systems Engineer are:

1. To produce a RELIABLE information system that will satisfy user information requirements and perform according to specifications.
2. To produce an information system that is easy to MAINTAIN and MODIFY.
3. To physically implement an information system in the most PRACTICAL, EFFICIENT, and COST EFFECTIVE manner possible.

Taxonomy - A Data Taxonomy is a hierarchical structure that separates data into specific classes of data based on common characteristics. The taxonomy represents a convenient way to classify data to prove that it is unique and without redundancy. This includes both primary and generated data elements. (Also see Domain).

Thin-Client - slang expression for a Network Computer (see listing). (Also see Client).

Unavailable Time - time when an employee is not available for work; e.g., vacations, leave, sickness, etc. Unavailable Time is considered (and recorded) in project scheduling.

User Friendly - an expression referring to the ease of use/processing of a system.

WAN - Wide Area Network - allowing multiple computers within a large geographical area to communicate and share computer resources (see LAN).

WBS - initials for Work Breakdown Structure (see listing).

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) - a hierarchical structure consisting of one or more phases of work in a project. A phase represents a major "key event" or milestone in the project. Each phase consists of one or more activities representing "sub-events" required to meet the milestone. Each activity consists of one or more operational steps or tasks representing the individual actions to be taken in the project. The "PRIDE" methodologies represent Work Breakdown Structures.

WWW - World Wide Web - an Internet protocol requiring special software to access and display a web page (or document) with text and graphics.